The incidence of cardiovascular disease differs significantlybetween men and women, in part because of differences in riskfactors and hormones.1 The incidence of atherosclerotic diseasesis low in premenopausal women, rises in postmenopausal women,and is reduced to premenopausal levels in postmenopausal womenwho receive estrogen therapy.1,2,3 Until recently, the atheroprotectiveeffects of estrogen were attributed principally to the hormone'seffects on serum lipid concentrations. However, estrogen-inducedalterations in serum lipids account for only approximately onethird of the observed clinical benefits of estrogen.3,4,5 Reviewsof the data suggest that the direct actions of estrogen on bloodvessels contribute . . . [Full Text of this Article]
Estrogen Receptors and Estrogens
Estrogen Receptors
Estrogens and Antiestrogens
Estrogen-Receptor–Associated Proteins
Systemic Effects of Estrogen
Effects on Serum Lipoproteins
Effects on Coagulation, Fibrinolytic, and Other Vasoactive Proteins
Antioxidant Effects
Direct Effects on Vascular Cells and Tissues
Rapid, Nongenomic Effects
Ion Channels and Rapid Effects
Nitric Oxide and Rapid Effects
Longer-Term Effects on the Vasculature
Effects on Genes Regulating Vascular Tone
Effects on the Response to Vascular Injury and on Atherosclerosis
Conclusions
Source Information
From the Molecular Cardiology Research Institute and the Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center and Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston.
Address reprint requests to Dr. Mendelsohn at the Molecular Cardiology Research Institute, Tufts University School of Medicine, New England Medical Center, 750 Washington St., No. 80, Boston, MA 02111, or at michael.mendelsohn@es.nemc.org.
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