FREE NEJM E-TOC    HOME   |   SUBSCRIBE   |   CURRENT ISSUE   |   PAST ISSUES   |   COLLECTIONS   |   Search Term  Advanced Search

Sign in | Get NEJM's E-Mail Table of Contents — Free | Subscribe

Previous Volume 342:921-929 March 30, 2000 Number 13 Next

	Full Text PDF Editorial by Angell, M. Editorial by Cohen, M. S. Letters Add to Personal Archive Add to Citation Manager Notify a Friend E-mail When Cited PubMed Citation

ABSTRACT

Background and Methods We examined the influence of viral load in relation to other risk factors for the heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). In a community-based study of 15,127 persons in a rural district of Uganda, we identified 415 couples in which one partner was HIV-1–positive and one was initially HIV-1–negative and followed them prospectively for up to 30 months. The incidence of HIV-1 infection per 100 person-years among the initially seronegative partners was examined in relation to behavioral and biologic variables.

Results The male partner was HIV-1–positive in 228 couples, and the female partner was HIV-1–positive in 187 couples. Ninety of the 415 initially HIV-1–negative partners seroconverted (incidence, 11.8 per 100 person-years). The rate of male-to-female transmission was not significantly different from the rate of female-to-male transmission (12.0 per 100 person-years vs. 11.6 per 100 person-years). The incidence of seroconversion was highest among the partners who were 15 to 19 years of age (15.3 per 100 person-years). The incidence was 16.7 per 100 person-years among 137 uncircumcised male partners, whereas there were no seroconversions among the 50 circumcised male partners (P<0.001). The mean serum HIV-1 RNA level was significantly higher among HIV-1–positive subjects whose partners seroconverted than among those whose partners did not seroconvert (90,254 copies per milliliter vs. 38,029 copies per milliliter, P=0.01). There were no instances of transmission among the 51 subjects with serum HIV-1 RNA levels of less than 1500 copies per milliliter; there was a significant dose–response relation of increased transmission with increasing viral load. In multivariate analyses of log-transformed HIV-1 RNA levels, each log increment in the viral load was associated with a rate ratio of 2.45 for seroconversion (95 percent confidence interval, 1.85 to 3.26).

Conclusions The viral load is the chief predictor of the risk of heterosexual transmission of HIV-1, and transmission is rare among persons with levels of less than 1500 copies of HIV-1 RNA per milliliter.

Source Information

From the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Md. (T.C.Q.); Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (T.C.Q., C.L., R.H.G.); Columbia University, New York (M.J.W., M.O.M.); and the Faculty of Medicine, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda (N.S., D.S., F.W.-M., T.L.).

Address reprint requests to Dr. Quinn at the Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University, 720 Rutland Ave., Ross 1159, Baltimore, MD 21205-2196.

Full Text of this Article

Related Letters:

A Study in Rural Uganda of Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Bailey R. C., Fremont-Smith K., Quinn T. C., Wawer M. J., Sewankambo N. K.
Extract | Full Text  
N Engl J Med 2000; 343:364-365, Aug 3, 2000. Correspondence

This article has been cited by other articles:

• Londish, G. J, Murray, J. M (2008). Significant reduction in HIV prevalence according to male circumcision intervention in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Epidemiol 37: 1246-1253 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Heikinheimo, O., Lahteenmaki, P. (2008). Contraception and HIV infection in women. Hum Reprod Update 0: dmn049v1-11 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Boily, M-C, Desai, K, Masse, B, Gumel, A (2008). Incremental role of male circumcision on a generalised HIV epidemic through its protective effect against other sexually transmitted infections: from efficacy to effectiveness to population-level impact. Sex. Transm. Infect. 84: ii28-ii34 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Gumbi, P. P., Nkwanyana, N. N., Bere, A., Burgers, W. A., Gray, C. M., Williamson, A.-L., Hoffman, M., Coetzee, D., Denny, L., Passmore, J.-A. S. (2008). Impact of Mucosal Inflammation on Cervical Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1)-Specific CD8 T-Cell Responses in the Female Genital Tract during Chronic HIV Infection. J. Virol. 82: 8529-8536 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Tang, J., Shao, W., Yoo, Y. J., Brill, I., Mulenga, J., Allen, S., Hunter, E., Kaslow, R. A. (2008). Human Leukocyte Antigen Class I Genotypes in Relation to Heterosexual HIV Type 1 Transmission within Discordant Couples. J. Immunol. 181: 2626-2635 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Mermin, J., Musinguzi, J., Opio, A., Kirungi, W., Ekwaru, J. P., Hladik, W., Kaharuza, F., Downing, R., Bunnell, R. (2008). Risk Factors for Recent HIV Infection in Uganda. JAMA 300: 540-549 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Hammer, S. M., Eron, J. J. Jr, Reiss, P., Schooley, R. T., Thompson, M. A., Walmsley, S., Cahn, P., Fischl, M. A., Gatell, J. M., Hirsch, M. S., Jacobsen, D. M., Montaner, J. S. G., Richman, D. D., Yeni, P. G., Volberding, P. A. (2008). Antiretroviral Treatment of Adult HIV Infection: 2008 Recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA Panel. JAMA 300: 555-570 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Rousseau, C. M., Daniels, M. G., Carlson, J. M., Kadie, C., Crawford, H., Prendergast, A., Matthews, P., Payne, R., Rolland, M., Raugi, D. N., Maust, B. S., Learn, G. H., Nickle, D. C., Coovadia, H., Ndung'u, T., Frahm, N., Brander, C., Walker, B. D., Goulder, P. J. R., Bhattacharya, T., Heckerman, D. E., Korber, B. T., Mullins, J. I. (2008). HLA Class I-Driven Evolution of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Subtype C Proteome: Immune Escape and Viral Load. J. Virol. 82: 6434-6446 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Sanders, G. D., Bayoumi, A. M., Holodniy, M., Owens, D. K. (2008). Cost-Effectiveness of HIV Screening in Patients Older than 55 Years of Age. ANN INTERN MED 148: 889-903 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Williams, P M, Sherrard, J, Jeffery, K J M (2008). The use of prophylaxis against HIV after sexual exposure in pregnancy to reduce the risk of vertical transmission. Int J STD AIDS 19: 421-422 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Temoshok, L. R., Wald, R. L. (2008). Integrating Multidimensional HIV Prevention Programs Into Healthcare Settings. Psychosom. Med. 70: 612-619 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Taylor, B. S., Sobieszczyk, M. E., McCutchan, F. E., Hammer, S. M. (2008). The Challenge of HIV-1 Subtype Diversity. NEJM 358: 1590-1602 [Full Text]  
• Isaacs, C. E., Wen, G. Y., Xu, W., Jia, J. H., Rohan, L., Corbo, C., Di Maggio, V., Jenkins, E. C. Jr., Hillier, S. (2008). Epigallocatechin Gallate Inactivates Clinical Isolates of Herpes Simplex Virus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 962-970 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Mehta, S D, Moses, S, Agot, K, Agingu, W, Parker, C, Ndinya-Achola, J O, Bailey, R C (2008). Herpes simplex virus type 2 infection among young uncircumcised men in Kisumu, Kenya. Sex. Transm. Infect. 84: 42-48 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Kidder, D. P., Wolitski, R. J., Campsmith, M. L., Nakamura, G. V. (2007). Health Status, Health Care Use, Medication Use, and Medication Adherence Among Homeless and Housed People Living With HIV/AIDS. Am. J. Public Health 97: 2238-2245 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Fraser, C., Hollingsworth, T. D., Chapman, R., de Wolf, F., Hanage, W. P. (2007). From the Cover: Variation in HIV-1 set-point viral load: Epidemiological analysis and an evolutionary hypothesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104: 17441-17446 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Trent, M., Chung, S.-e., Ellen, J. M, Clum, G., and the Adolescent HIV/AIDS Trials Network, (2007). New sexually transmitted infections among adolescent girls infected with HIV. Sex. Transm. Infect. 83: 468-469 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Taiwo, B. O., Murphy, R. (2007). Transmitted Resistance: An Overview and Its Potential Relevance to the Management of HIV-Infected Persons in Resource-Limited Settings. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) 6: 188-197 [Abstract]  
• Hamlyn, E., Easterbrook, P. (2007). Occupational exposure to HIV and the use of post-exposure prophylaxis. Occup Med (Lond) 57: 329-336 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Page-Shipp, L. S, Charalambous, S., Roux, S., Dias, B., Sefuti, C., Churchyard, G. J, Grant, A. D (2007). Attitudes to directly observed antiretroviral treatment in a workplace HIV care programme in South Africa. Sex. Transm. Infect. 83: 383-386 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Stover, J., Bollinger, L., Hecht, R., Williams, C., Roca, E. (2007). The Impact Of An AIDS Vaccine In Developing Countries: A New Model And Initial Results. Health Aff (Millwood) 26: 1147-1158 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Delpierre, C., Cuzin, L., Lert, F. (2007). Routine testing to reduce late HIV diagnosis in France. BMJ 334: 1354-1356 [Full Text]  
• Zarate, S., Pond, S. L. K., Shapshak, P., Frost, S. D. W. (2007). Comparative Study of Methods for Detecting Sequence Compartmentalization in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1. J. Virol. 81: 6643-6651 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Heffelfinger, J. D., Swint, E. B., Berman, S. M., Weinstock, H. S. (2007). Trends in Primary and Secondary Syphilis Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 97: 1076-1083 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Johnston, M. I., Fauci, A. S. (2007). An HIV Vaccine -- Evolving Concepts. NEJM 356: 2073-2081 [Full Text]  
• Bujan, L., Sergerie, M., Moinard, N., Martinet, S., Porte, L., Massip, P., Pasquier, C., Daudin, M. (2007). Decreased Semen Volume and Spermatozoa Motility in HIV-1-Infected Patients Under Antiretroviral Treatment. J Androl 28: 444-452 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Cohen, M. S., Gay, C., Kashuba, A. D.M., Blower, S., Paxton, L. (2007). Narrative Review: Antiretroviral Therapy to Prevent the Sexual Transmission of HIV-1. ANN INTERN MED 146: 591-601 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Flynn, P., Havens, P., Brady, M., Emmanuel, P., Read, J., Hoyt, L., Henry-Reid, L., Van Dyke, R., Mofenson, L. (2007). Male Circumcision for Prevention of HIV and Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Pediatrics 119: 821-822 [Full Text]  
• van Leeuwen, E., Prins, J.M., Jurriaans, S., Boer, K., Reiss, P., Repping, S., van der Veen, F. (2007). Reproduction and fertility in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection. Hum Reprod Update 13: 197-206 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Nagot, N., Ouedraogo, A., Foulongne, V., Konate, I., Weiss, H. A., Vergne, L., Defer, M.-C., Djagbare, D., Sanon, A., Andonaba, J.-B., Becquart, P., Segondy, M., Vallo, R., Sawadogo, A., Van de Perre, P., Mayaud, P., the ANRS 1285 Study Group, (2007). Reduction of HIV-1 RNA Levels with Therapy to Suppress Herpes Simplex Virus. NEJM 356: 790-799 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Corey, L. (2007). Synergistic Copathogens -- HIV-1 and HSV-2. NEJM 356: 854-856 [Full Text]  
• Bobardt, M. D., Chatterji, U., Selvarajah, S., Van der Schueren, B., David, G., Kahn, B., Gallay, P. A. (2007). Cell-Free Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Transcytosis through Primary Genital Epithelial Cells. J. Virol. 81: 395-405 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Hallfors, D. D., Iritani, B. J., Miller, W. C., Bauer, D. J. (2007). Sexual and Drug Behavior Patterns and HIV and STD Racial Disparities: The Need for New Directions. Am. J. Public Health 97: 125-132 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Abu-Raddad, L. J., Patnaik, P., Kublin, J. G. (2006). Dual Infection with HIV and Malaria Fuels the Spread of Both Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa. Science 314: 1603-1606 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Paltiel, A. D., Walensky, R. P., Schackman, B. R., Seage, G. R. III, Mercincavage, L. M., Weinstein, M. C., Freedberg, K. A. (2006). Expanded HIV Screening in the United States: Effect on Clinical Outcomes, HIV Transmission, and Costs. ANN INTERN MED 145: 797-806 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Benki, S., McClelland, R. S., Emery, S., Baeten, J. M., Richardson, B. A., Lavreys, L., Mandaliya, K., Overbaugh, J. (2006). Quantification of Genital Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) DNA in Specimens from Women with Low Plasma HIV-1 RNA Levels Typical of HIV-1 Nontransmitters. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 4357-4362 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Smit, E J (2006). HIV. Sex. Transm. Infect. 82: iv42-iv45 [Full Text]  
• Vickerman, P, Watts, C, Peeling, R W, Mabey, D, Alary, M (2006). Modelling the cost effectiveness of rapid point of care diagnostic tests for the control of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers.. Sex. Transm. Infect. 82: 403-412 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Poonia, B, Walter, L, Dufour, J, Harrison, R, Marx, P A, Veazey, R S (2006). Cyclic changes in the vaginal epithelium of normal rhesus macaques.. J Endocrinol 190: 829-835 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Fox, J, Weber, J, Fidler, S (2006). Primary HIV.. Sex. Transm. Infect. 82: 267-268 [Full Text]  
• Wilson, N. A., Reed, J., Napoe, G. S., Piaskowski, S., Szymanski, A., Furlott, J., Gonzalez, E. J., Yant, L. J., Maness, N. J., May, G. E., Soma, T., Reynolds, M. R., Rakasz, E., Rudersdorf, R., McDermott, A. B., O'Connor, D. H., Friedrich, T. C., Allison, D. B., Patki, A., Picker, L. J., Burton, D. R., Lin, J., Huang, L., Patel, D., Heindecker, G., Fan, J., Citron, M., Horton, M., Wang, F., Liang, X., Shiver, J. W., Casimiro, D. R., Watkins, D. I. (2006). Vaccine-Induced Cellular Immune Responses Reduce Plasma Viral Concentrations after Repeated Low-Dose Challenge with Pathogenic Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVmac239.. J. Virol. 80: 5875-5885 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Millett, G. A., Peterson, J. L., Wolitski, R. J., Stall, R. (2006). Greater Risk for HIV Infection of Black Men Who Have Sex With Men: A Critical Literature Review. Am. J. Public Health 96: 1007-1019 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Cassell, M. M, Halperin, D. T, Shelton, J. D, Stanton, D. (2006). Risk compensation: the Achilles' heel of innovations in HIV prevention?. BMJ 332: 605-607 [Full Text]  
• McClelland, R. S., Baeten, J. M. (2006). Reducing HIV-1 transmission through prevention strategies targeting HIV-1-seropositive individuals. J Antimicrob Chemother 57: 163-166 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Hogan, D. R, Baltussen, R., Hayashi, C., Lauer, J. A, Salomon, J. A (2005). Cost effectiveness analysis of strategies to combat HIV/AIDS in developing countries. BMJ 331: 1431-1437 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Frieden, T. R., Das-Douglas, M., Kellerman, S. E., Henning, K. J. (2005). Applying public health principles to the HIV epidemic.. NEJM 353: 2397-2402 [Full Text]  
• Hammer, S. M. (2005). Clinical practice. Management of newly diagnosed HIV infection.. NEJM 353: 1702-1710 [Full Text]  
• Cummins, J. E. Jr., Boneva, R. S., Switzer, W. M., Christensen, L. L., Sandstrom, P., Heneine, W., Chapman, L. E., Dezzutti, C. S. (2005). Mucosal and Systemic Antibody Responses in Humans Infected with Simian Foamy Virus. J. Virol. 79: 13186-13189 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Sheth, P. M., Danesh, A., Shahabi, K., Rebbapragada, A., Kovacs, C., Dimayuga, R., Halpenny, R., MacDonald, K. S., Mazzulli, T., Kelvin, D., Ostrowski, M., Kaul, R. (2005). HIV-Specific CD8+ Lymphocytes in Semen Are Not Associated with Reduced HIV Shedding. J. Immunol. 175: 4789-4796 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• D'Cruz, O. J., Uckun, F. M. (2005). Discovery of 2,5-dimethoxy-substituted 5-bromopyridyl thiourea (PHI-236) as a potent broad-spectrum anti-human immunodeficiency virus microbicide. Mol Hum Reprod 11: 767-777 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Coco, A., Kleinhans, E. (2005). Prevalence of Primary HIV Infection in Symptomatic Ambulatory Patients. Ann Fam Med 3: 400-404 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Maher, D., Wu, X., Schacker, T., Horbul, J., Southern, P. (2005). HIV binding, penetration, and primary infection in human cervicovaginal tissue. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 11504-11509 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Chou, R., Huffman, L. H., Fu, R., Smits, A. K., Korthuis, P. T. (2005). Screening for HIV: A Review of the Evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. ANN INTERN MED 143: 55-73 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Gilbert, P. B., Sun, Y. (2005). Failure time analysis of HIV vaccine effects on viral load and antiretroviral therapy initiation. Biostatistics 6: 374-394 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Desvarieux, M., Landman, R., Liautaud, B., Girard, P.-M., for the INTREPIDE Initiative In Global Health, (2005). Antiretroviral Therapy in Resource-Poor Countries: Illusions and Realities. Am. J. Public Health 95: 1117-1122 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Cohen, D. A., Wu, S.-Y., Farley, T. A. (2005). Cost-Effective Allocation Of Government Funds To Prevent HIV Infection. Health Aff (Millwood) 24: 915-926 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Sadiq, S T, Taylor, S, Copas, A J, Bennett, J, Kaye, S, Drake, S M, Kirk, S, Pillay, D, Weller, I V D (2005). The effects of urethritis on seminal plasma HIV-1 RNA loads in homosexual men not receiving antiretroviral therapy. Sex. Transm. Infect. 81: 120-123 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Sadagopal, S., Amara, R. R., Montefiori, D. C., Wyatt, L. S., Staprans, S. I., Kozyr, N. L., McClure, H. M., Moss, B., Robinson, H. L. (2005). Signature for Long-Term Vaccine-Mediated Control of a Simian and Human Immunodeficiency Virus 89.6P Challenge: Stable Low-Breadth and Low-Frequency T-Cell Response Capable of Coproducing Gamma Interferon and Interleukin-2. J. Virol. 79: 3243-3253 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Manavi, K., Welsby, P. D (2005). HIV testing. BMJ 330: 492-493 [Full Text]  
• Weinhardt, L. S. (2005). Changing HIV and AIDS-Related Behavior: Promising Approaches at the Individual, Group, and Community Levels. Behav Modif 29: 219-226  
• Wainberg, M. A. (2005). Generic HIV Drugs -- Enlightened Policy for Global Health. NEJM 352: 747-750 [Full Text]  
• Nettles, R. E., Kieffer, T. L., Kwon, P., Monie, D., Han, Y., Parsons, T., Cofrancesco, J. Jr, Gallant, J. E., Quinn, T. C., Jackson, B., Flexner, C., Carson, K., Ray, S., Persaud, D., Siliciano, R. F. (2005). Intermittent HIV-1 Viremia (Blips) and Drug Resistance in Patients Receiving HAART. JAMA 293: 817-829 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Forthal, D. N., Landucci, G., Phan, T. B., Becerra, J. (2005). Interactions between Natural Killer Cells and Antibody Fc Result in Enhanced Antibody Neutralization of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1. J. Virol. 79: 2042-2049 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Sanders, G. D., Bayoumi, A. M., Sundaram, V., Bilir, S. P., Neukermans, C. P., Rydzak, C. E., Douglass, L. R., Lazzeroni, L. C., Holodniy, M., Owens, D. K. (2005). Cost-Effectiveness of Screening for HIV in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. NEJM 352: 570-585 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Pillai, S. K., Good, B., Pond, S. K., Wong, J. K., Strain, M. C., Richman, D. D., Smith, D. M. (2005). Semen-Specific Genetic Characteristics of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 env. J. Virol. 79: 1734-1742 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• van Kesteren, N. M. C., Hospers, H. J., Kok, G., van Empelen, P. (2005). Sexuality and Sexual Risk Behavior in HIV-Positive Men Who Have Sex With Men. Qual Health Res 15: 145-168 [Abstract]  
• Taha, T. E., Nour, S., Kumwenda, N. I., Broadhead, R. L., Fiscus, S. A., Kafulafula, G., Nkhoma, C., Chen, S., Hoover, D. R. (2005). Gender Differences in Perinatal HIV Acquisition Among African Infants. Pediatrics 115: e167-e172 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Philpott, S., Burger, H., Tsoukas, C., Foley, B., Anastos, K., Kitchen, C., Weiser, B. (2005). Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Genomic RNA Sequences in the Female Genital Tract and Blood: Compartmentalization and Intrapatient Recombination. J. Virol. 79: 353-363 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Gorbach, P M, Galea, J T, Amani, B, Shin, A, Celum, C, Kerndt, P, Golden, M R (2004). Don't ask, don't tell: patterns of HIV disclosure among HIV positive men who have sex with men with recent STI practising high risk behaviour in Los Angeles and Seattle. Sex. Transm. Infect. 80: 512-517 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• D'Cruz, O. J., Samuel, P., Uckun, F. M. (2004). PHI-443: A Novel Noncontraceptive Broad-Spectrum Anti-Human Immunodeficiency Virus Microbicide. Biol. Reprod. 71: 2037-2047 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Van Howe, R. S. (2004). A Cost-Utility Analysis of Neonatal Circumcision. Med Decis Making 24: 584-601 [Abstract]  
• Davenport, M. P., Ribeiro, R. M., Chao, D. L., Perelson, A. S. (2004). Predicting the Impact of a Nonsterilizing Vaccine against Human Immunodeficiency Virus. J. Virol. 78: 11340-11351 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Isaacs, C. E., Jia, J. H., Xu, W. (2004). A Lipid-Peptide Microbicide Inactivates Herpes Simplex Virus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 3182-3184 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Rosengarten, M. (2004). The Challenge of HIV for Feminist Theory. Feminist Theory 5: 205-222 [Abstract]  
• Garnett, G P, Grassly, N C, Boerma, J T, Ghys, P D (2004). Maximising the global use of HIV surveillance data through the development and sharing of analytical tools. Sex. Transm. Infect. 80: i1-i4 [Full Text]  
• Crepaz, N., Hart, T. A., Marks, G. (2004). Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy and Sexual Risk Behavior: A Meta-analytic Review. JAMA 292: 224-236 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Poundstone, K. E., Strathdee, S. A., Celentano, D. D. (2004). The Social Epidemiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Epidemiol Rev 26: 22-35 [Full Text]  
• Kirchhoff, F., Schindler, M., Bailer, N., Renkema, G. H., Saksela, K., Knoop, V., Muller-Trutwin, M. C., Santiago, M. L., Bibollet-Ruche, F., Dittmar, M. T., Heeney, J. L., Hahn, B. H., Munch, J. (2004). Nef Proteins from Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Chimpanzees Interact with p21-Activated Kinase 2 and Modulate Cell Surface Expression of Various Human Receptors. J. Virol. 78: 6864-6874 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Farmer, P., Campos, N. G. (2004). New Malaise: Bioethics and Human Rights in the Global Era. J Law Med Ethics 32: 243-251  
• Hutson, J M (2004). Circumcision: a surgeon's perspective. J. Med. Ethics 30: 238-240 [Full Text]  
• D'Cruz, O. J., Waurzyniak, B., Uckun, F. M. (2004). Antiretroviral Spermicide WHI-07 Prevents Vaginal and Rectal Transmission of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus in Domestic Cats. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 1082-1088 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Hudgens, M. G, Gilbert, P. B, Self, S. G (2004). Endpoints in vaccine trials. Stat Methods Med Res 13: 89-114 [Abstract]  
• McDermott, A. B., Mitchen, J., Piaskowski, S., De Souza, I., Yant, L. J., Stephany, J., Furlott, J., Watkins, D. I. (2004). Repeated Low-Dose Mucosal Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVmac239 Challenge Results in the Same Viral and Immunological Kinetics as High-Dose Challenge: a Model for the Evaluation of Vaccine Efficacy in Nonhuman Primates. J. Virol. 78: 3140-3144 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Spira, S. C., Wainberg, M. A. (2004). Jewish Religious Ethics Mandate Access to Antiretroviral Drugs in Developing Countries. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) 3: 7-11 [Abstract]  
• Vogel, T. U., Reynolds, M. R., Fuller, D. H., Vielhuber, K., Shipley, T., Fuller, J. T., Kunstman, K. J., Sutter, G., Marthas, M. L., Erfle, V., Wolinsky, S. M., Wang, C., Allison, D. B., Rud, E. W., Wilson, N., Montefiori, D., Altman, J. D., Watkins, D. I. (2003). Multispecific Vaccine-Induced Mucosal Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes Reduce Acute-Phase Viral Replication but Fail in Long-Term Control of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVmac239. J. Virol. 77: 13348-13360 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Baker, H W G, Mijch, A, Garland, S, Crowe, S, Dunne, M, Edgar, D, Clarke, G, Foster, P, Blood, J (2003). Use of assisted reproductive technology to reduce the risk of transmission of HIV in discordant couples wishing to have their own children where the male partner is seropositive with an undetectable viral load. J. Med. Ethics 29: 315-320 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Bogaards, J. A., Goudsmit, J. (2003). Meeting the immense need for HAART in resource-poor settings. J Antimicrob Chemother 52: 743-746 [Full Text]  
• Smith, P. D., Meng, G., Salazar-Gonzalez, J. F., Shaw, G. M. (2003). Macrophage HIV-1 infection and the gastrointestinal tract reservoir. J. Leukoc. Biol. 74: 642-649 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Murray, J. M, Law, M. G, Gao, Z., Kaldor, J. M (2003). The impact of behavioural changes on the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C among injecting drug users. Int J Epidemiol 32: 708-714 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Weintrob, A. C., Giner, J., Menezes, P., Patrick, E., Benjamin, D. K. Jr, Lennox, J., Pilcher, C. D., Eron, J. J., Hicks, C. B. (2003). Infrequent Diagnosis of Primary Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: Missed Opportunities in Acute Care Settings. Arch Intern Med 163: 2097-2100 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Cummins, J. E. Jr., Villanueva, J. M., Evans-Strickfaden, T., Sesay, S. M., Abner, S. R., Bush, T. J., Green, T. A., Lennox, J. L., Wright, T., Folks, T. M., Hart, C. E., Dezzutti, C. S. (2003). Detection of Infectious Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Female Genital Secretions by a Short-Term Culture Method. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 4081-4088 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Santiago, M. L., Lukasik, M., Kamenya, S., Li, Y., Bibollet-Ruche, F., Bailes, E., Muller, M. N., Emery, M., Goldenberg, D. A., Lwanga, J. S., Ayouba, A., Nerrienet, E., McClure, H. M., Heeney, J. L., Watts, D. P., Pusey, A. E., Collins, D. A., Wrangham, R. W., Goodall, J., Brookfield, J. F. Y., Sharp, P. M., Shaw, G. M., Hahn, B. H. (2003). Foci of Endemic Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Wild-Living Eastern Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). J. Virol. 77: 7545-7562 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Ghosh, M. K., Kuhn, L., West, J., Semrau, K., Decker, D., Thea, D. M., Aldrovandi, G. M. (2003). Quantitation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Breast Milk. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 2465-2470 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Kebaabetswe, P, Lockman, S, Mogwe, S, Mandevu, R, Thior, I, Essex, M, Shapiro, R L (2003). Male circumcision: an acceptable strategy for HIV prevention in Botswana. Sex. Transm. Infect. 79: 214-219 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Ahdieh-Grant, L., Yamashita, T. E., Phair, J. P., Detels, R., Wolinsky, S. M., Margolick, J. B., Rinaldo, C. R., Jacobson, L. P. (2003). When to Initiate Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy: A Cohort Approach. Am J Epidemiol 157: 738-746 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Montefiori, D. C., Altfeld, M., Lee, P. K., Bilska, M., Zhou, J., Johnston, M. N., Gao, F., Walker, B. D., Rosenberg, E. S. (2003). Viremia Control Despite Escape from a Rapid and Potent Autologous Neutralizing Antibody Response After Therapy Cessation in an HIV-1-Infected Individual. J. Immunol. 170: 3906-3914 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Stephenson, J M, Imrie, J, Davis, M M D, Mercer, C, Black, S, Copas, A J, Hart, G J, Davidson, O R, Williams, I G (2003). Is use of antiretroviral therapy among homosexual men associated with increased risk of transmission of HIV infection?. Sex. Transm. Infect. 79: 7-10 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
• Andreoletti, L., Gresenguet, G., Chomont, N., Matta, M., Quiniou, Y., Si-Mohamed, A., Belec, L. (2003). Comparison of Washing and Swabbing Procedures for Collecting Genital Fluids To Assess Shedding of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) RNA in Asymptomatic HIV-1-Infected Women. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 449-452 [Abstract] [Full Text]